This is a working overview of albumin binding, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2025-07-31. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Naming in this area is inconsistent, and readers should treat product labels with care. In much of the literature and in vendor catalogs, the unqualified term refers to the albumin-binding version, while the version lacking the DAC group appears as modified GRF(1-29), mod GRF(1-29), or the same name with a without-DAC qualifier. Because one abbreviation has been applied to both materials, the only reliable way to identify a sample is to check the stated sequence and the presence of the linker.
CJC-1295 is the name used for a synthetic peptide modeled on growth hormone-releasing hormone, the hypothalamic signal that prompts the pituitary to release growth hormone. The compound was described by a Canadian drug discovery company in the mid-2000s as a long-acting research tool. Two closely related molecules share the name in practice: one carries a drug affinity complex, or DAC, group, and one does not. The distinction matters because the two behave differently in circulation.
The peptide backbone corresponds to GRF(1-29), the first 29 residues of native growth hormone-releasing hormone, which retains most of the receptor-activating activity of the full-length molecule. Four substitutions distinguish the analog from the natural sequence: D-alanine at position 2, glutamine at position 8, alanine at position 15, and leucine at position 27. These changes slow cleavage by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, the enzyme that degrades native hormone in plasma within minutes. The outcome is improved enzymatic stability combined with a still brief residence time when no additional modification is present.
Two related forms appear under the CJC-1295 name. The simpler analogue, commonly written as modified GRF(1-29), carries the four substitutions but no additional conjugation. The second form attaches a maleimidopropionic acid linker to a lysine residue, a modification frequently called the drug affinity complex. That linker reacts with the free thiol on serum albumin to form a covalent bond. Because albumin has a long residence time in blood, the conjugated peptide stays in circulation far longer than the unconjugated analogue.
Receptor level activity follows the canonical GHRH pathway. The peptide binds the GHRH receptor, a class B G protein coupled receptor on somatotroph cells of the anterior pituitary. Binding raises intracellular cyclic AMP, which promotes calcium entry and the release of growth hormone into the bloodstream. Because the molecule acts at the same receptor as the endogenous hormone, its effect is superimposed on the natural pulsatile rhythm rather than replacing it. Whether sustained receptor occupation leads to desensitization is not fully settled.
CJC-1295 belongs to a class of synthetic peptides modeled on growth hormone releasing hormone, a forty-four amino acid signal produced by the hypothalamus. The compound is built from the first twenty-nine residues of the natural sequence, with four substitutions introduced at positions 2, 8, 15 and 27. These changes were designed to slow enzymatic breakdown while preserving receptor activation. The result is a peptide that is shorter than native GHRH and considerably more resistant to ordinary clearance pathways in circulation.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular class | Synthetic peptide | GHRH analog, not a steroid |
| Backbone length | 29 amino acids | Based on GRF(1-29) |
| Substitutions | Four positions | D-Ala2, Gln8, Ala15, Leu27 |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized research material |
| Common synonyms | Modified GRF(1-29) | Usage varies between sources |
CJC-1295 is a synthetic peptide built as a long-acting analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone. Its backbone matches the first twenty-nine residues of the natural human hormone, with four amino acid substitutions added to slow enzymatic breakdown. A reactive maleimide group, commonly termed the drug affinity complex, allows the peptide to attach to circulating albumin after administration. That albumin attachment keeps the molecule in the bloodstream for an extended period instead of being cleared within minutes.
The compound emerged from work at a Canadian biotechnology firm in the early 2000s. Early human studies examined its effect on growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 in healthy volunteers and in people with HIV-associated fat redistribution. Reports described sustained increases in both markers after a single injection. Development did not advance to regulatory approval, and the clinical programme was later discontinued. The molecule is now encountered mainly as a research chemical rather than a marketed medicine.
The distinguishing feature of the DAC form is a maleimide-containing group that reacts with the free thiol of cysteine-34 on human serum albumin. This reaction forms a covalent bond without enzymatic assistance, and it takes place after the peptide enters the bloodstream. Because albumin is abundant and long-lived, the attached peptide is carried through circulation far longer than an unmodified fragment would survive. The chemistry is a deliberate pharmacokinetic strategy rather than a change to receptor activity.
Enzymatic protection is a separate mechanism from plasma protein binding. The four substitutions in the backbone reduce recognition by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, which normally cleaves the natural hormone within minutes. Without the reactive group, this resistance still yields only a short window of activity, generally reported in the range of tens of minutes. With it, reported half-lives in early human work extended to several days. The size of that gap is the main practical distinction between the two materials.
Both forms act at the pituitary receptor for growth hormone-releasing hormone and increase growth hormone output, which in turn raises insulin-like growth factor 1. A long-acting analog produces sustained rather than pulsatile stimulation, and the physiological consequences of that pattern are not fully settled. Published human data on the extended form remain limited, and much of what circulates in discussion traces to early company reports rather than independent replication. How sustained exposure affects normal feedback remains an open question.
Identity and purity are established with reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The chromatographic step separates the target peptide from truncated sequences and deletion products, while the mass measurement confirms the expected molecular weight to within a fraction of a dalton. Because the two common variants differ by the presence of the linker, mass alone can distinguish them in the unconjugated state. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping are used when sequence level confirmation is required.
Lyophilized material is generally stable for extended periods when held at minus twenty degrees Celsius or below and protected from moisture and light. In solution the peptide is more labile; bond hydrolysis, aggregation and oxidation of susceptible residues all proceed faster at ambient temperature. Repeated freeze and thaw cycles should be avoided because they promote clumping and loss of soluble material. The conjugated variant adds a further consideration, since the maleimide group can hydrolyze in aqueous buffer and lose its ability to react with albumin.
CJC-1295 acts at the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor, a G-protein-coupled receptor found on somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary. Binding triggers a rise in cyclic AMP and calcium entry, which promotes release of stored growth hormone. Because the peptide mimics the body's own releasing hormone, it amplifies existing secretory pulses rather than driving continuous output. The size of the response therefore depends partly on the subject's own hormonal rhythm and feedback state.
The attached maleimide group explains the unusual duration of the DAC version. After injection it reacts with the thiol of cysteine-34 on serum albumin, forming a stable covalent bond. The resulting conjugate is too large for rapid kidney filtration and is shielded from many peptidases. Reported half-lives for this form reach several days, whereas the version without the group is cleared in roughly half an hour. That gap is the main pharmacological difference between the two.
== History == Although the applications of pharmacometabolomics to personalized medicine are largely only being realized now, the study of an individual's metabolism has been used to treat disease since the Middle Ages. Early physicians employed a primitive form of metabolomic analysis by smelling, tasting and looking at urine to diagnose disease. Obviously the measurement techniques needed to look at specific metabolites were unavailable at that time, but such technologies have evolved dramatically over the last decade to develop precise, high-throughput devices, as well as the accompanying data analysis software to analyze output. Currently, sample purification processes, such as liquid or gas chromatography, are coupled with either mass spectrometry (MS)-based or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based analytical methods to characterize the metabolite profiles of individual patients. Continually advancing informatics tools allow for the identification, quantification and classification of metabolites to determine which pathways may influence certain pharmaceutical interventions. One of the earliest studies discussing the principle and applications of pharmacometabolomics was conducted in an animal model to look at the metabolism of paracetamol and liver damage. NMR spectroscopy was used to analyze the urinary metabolic profiles of rats pre- and post-treatment with paracetamol. The analysis revealed a certain metabolic profile associated with increased liver damage following paracetamol treatment.
== History == New Drug Applications (NDA) for eteplirsen and a similar drug drisapersen were filed with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in August 2015. The Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA) goal dates for these were December 27, 2015 for drisapersen and February 26, 2016, for eteplirsen. Following FDA rejection of drisapersen, the agency announced a three-month time extension for its review of eteplirsen. The FDA panel decision was controversial because the FDA staff and the panel used a stricter standard of evidence than Sarepta and patient groups used. The FDA panel said that it was required by law to apply the standard of "substantial evidence" of effectiveness. This required randomized, controlled trials showing effectiveness of a meaningful clinical outcome, such as the ability to function in daily life. Sarepta and patient groups wanted to use the standard of historical controls, personal testimonies, and the presence of altered dystrophin in the body. On April 25, 2016, the Advisory Committee Panel voted against approval;. However, in June 2016, FDA requested for additional data from Sarepta to confirm findings of dystrophin production by eteplirsen. Janet Woodcock, director of the FDA's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, overruled the panel, and FDA Commissioner Robert Califf deferred to her decision. Eterplirsen received accelerated approval on September 19, 2016. The European Medicines Agency reviewed the molecule in 2018, and refused to approve it.
=== Draining === Once the cheese curd is judged to be ready, the cheese whey must be released. As with many foods the presence of water and the bacteria in it encourages decomposition. To prevent such decomposition it is necessary to remove most of the water (whey) from the cheese milk, and hence cheese curd, to make a partial dehydration of the curd. There are several ways to separate the curd from the whey.
Shakey's Pizza was founded in Sacramento, California, on April 30, 1954, by Sherwood "Shakey" Johnson and Ed Plummer. Johnson's nickname resulted from nerve damage following a bout of malaria suffered during World War II. The parlor opened on a weekend, but since the pizza ovens were not yet completed, only beer was served. Shakey took the profits from beer sales and bought ingredients for pizza the following Monday. Shakey personally played Dixieland jazz piano to entertain patrons. He also hired the original members of the Silver Dollar Jazz Band, paying the musicians $10 each plus all the beer and pizza they wanted (Shakey soon realized it was cheaper to pay the musicians scale). This brought the music of Lu Watters to the Sacramento area, causing a local sensation. Jazz historian K.O. Eckland has given the band the credit for the jazz revival in Sacramento that extended to the formation of the Sacramento Traditional Jazz Society. Shakey's also became known outside Sacramento, not for its pizza, but for the jazz program it sponsored on a regional radio network. Shakey Johnson is honored in the American Banjo Museum in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, for his longtime use of banjo music at his pizza parlors. Other live music, including piano, was also a staple in the old Shakey's parlors. Up until the early 1970s, printed menus included lyrics to classic barbershop songs so that the customers could sing along with the band while their meals were being prepared.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The alcohol 3 was then converted into the acetate 4 via acetic anhydride-pyridine at room temperature with an overall yield of 90%. The acetate was then converted to the hydroxymethyl derivative 5 in three steps (1. TFA/room temperature; 2. ClCO2Et/Et3N-CH2Cl2/room temperature; 3. NaBH4/CH3OH-CH2Cl2/0 °C. Mesylation of 5 (MsCl/CH3OH-Et3N-CH2Cl2/0 °C), followed by lithium chloride treatment in DMF and hydrolysis (NaOCH3/CH3OH-CH2Cl2/room temperature) give the chloride 6 at a 95% overall yield. Adding phenyllithium slowly to a mixture of 6 and chloromethyl benzyl ether in excess in THF at 78 °C gave the benzylgliotoxin adduct 7 at 45% yield. Next, boron trichloride treatment of 7 in in methylene chloride at 0 °C yielded the gliotoxin anisaldehyde adduct 8 at 50% yield. Finally, acid oxidation of 8 followed by perchloric acid treatment in methylene chloride at room temperature yielded d,l-gliotoxin in a 65% yield. Spectroscopic analysis (NMR, ir, uv, MS) and TLC comparison showed that the synthetic substance was identical to natural gliotoxin. At least a couple of alternative syntheses are known to be reported in the pendant literature.
In addition, we in Serbia and Montenegro must take into account that whatever form we take within the European Union, we have only but one choice and that is to work for the common good of all member nations. It is also central to take into account that stability in our region will be enhanced when Serbia is fully at peace with itself. Following Montenegro's successful independence referendum on 21 May 2006, the re-creation of the Serbian monarchy found its way into daily political debate. A monarchist proposal for the new Serbian constitution has been published alongside other proposals. The document approved in October is a republican one. The Serbian people have not had a chance to vote on the system of government. The Crown Prince raised the issue of a royal restoration in the immediate aftermath of the vote. In a press release issued on 24 May, he stated:
==== Gram-negative bacteria ==== Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), that can transfer DNA between bacterial cells, are produced by metabolically active bacterial cells, and the OMVs are not the result of cell lysis or cell death. Pathogenic strains can produce about 10-25 times more vesicles than a nonpathogenic strain making this highly relevant to carbapenem resistance transfer. OMVs protect plasmids from being digested extracellularly by nucleases that may be found in the environment, thus favoring horizontal gene transfer.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. It is a laboratory-made analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone. The natural hormone is a 44-residue peptide, while the analog is built on a shorter 29-residue fragment.
The original material included a linker that binds serum albumin. A later variant removed that linker to reduce the duration of action. Catalogs and papers did not consistently adopt separate names, so both remain widely labeled with the same term.
The amino acid sequence and the presence or absence of the linker group. Mass measured by spectrometry gives an independent check that separates the two forms.
The names are often used interchangeably in casual writing, but they are not strictly identical. Modified GRF(1-29) refers to the unconjugated analogue carrying only the four substitutions. The version sold as CJC-1295 with DAC includes the albumin binding linker and clears much more slowly.